Unlike humans, most other Animals cannot create technologies to aid in their survival, but all organisms must adapt (adjust) to the environment in which they live to survive. Other species must rely exclusively upon the evolution of these adjustments, which are called adaptations. These adaptations must be passable to subsequent generations in order for the species to propagate successfully. Humans, on the other hand, have evolved many adaptations to aid in our survival, but we have also developed technologies that allow us to survive in environments in which we would quickly perish otherwise (such as the arctic or even outer space).
In the following article, we will be discussing adaptations in the biological sense:
- The definition of adaptation
- Why adaptations are important
- the different types of adaptation
- Examples of adaptation
Definition of adaptation in biology
The definition of adaptation is:
Adaptation in biology is the evolutionary process or features that allow an organism to have higher fitness in its environment.
Fitness is the ability of an organism to use the resources in its environment to survive and reproduce.
Adaptation does not include an organism learning new behaviours unless these new behaviours are the result of a feature that is heritable (can be passed on to the next generation).
Depending on which exact aspect of adaptation is being considered, adaptation can be defined in three different ways in biology. Adaptation includes:
Evolution through Natural Selection that increases an organism's level of fitness.
The actual adapted state achieved through evolution.
The organism's observable (phenotypic) features or traits that have adapted.
Along with Speciation, adaptation allows for the massive diversity of species we have on Earth.
What can be commonly mistaken for adaptation? Certain species can be defined as generalists, meaning they are capable of living and thriving in many habitats and under different environmental conditions (such as different climates).
Two examples of generalists you may be very familiar with are coyotes (Canis latrans) (Fig. 1) and raccoons (Procyon lotor). Due to their generalist nature, both of these species have become acclimated to living in a human-dominated landscape and have actually expanded their geographic range in the presence of humans.
They can be found in urban, suburban and rural areas and have learned to prey upon domesticated Animals and scavenge human garbage.
Figure 1: Coyotes are a prime example of a generalist species that has learned to thrive in a human landscape, but this is not adaptation. Source: Wiki Commons, Public Domain
This is NOT an example of adaptation. These species were able to thrive in a human-dominated landscape due to their generalist nature, which preceded the arrival of humans and allowed them to exploit new opportunities. They did not evolve new traits that would allow them to survive better alongside humans.
Some other examples of generalist species include American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis), mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris), black bears (Ursus americanus), and American crows (Corvis brachyrhynchos). This is in contrast to specialists, which are species that require specific ecological niches and habitat requirements to survive, such as gharials (Gavialis gangeticus), pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), and koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus).
Features are adaptations
Phenotypic features, or traits, that are heritable are the adaptations we are concerned with in biology. Examples of phenotypic traits include everything from eye color and body size to the ability to thermoregulate and the development of certain structural traits, such as beak and snout morphology, as we describe in the next sections.
An adaptation or adaptive feature is any heritable trait that increases an organism's survival and reproduction rates.
An organism’s traits or features are initially given by its genetic makeup or genotype. However, not all genes are expressed, and an organism’s phenotype depends on what genes are expressed, and how they are expressed. The phenotype depends on both the genotype and the environment.
Importance of adaptation in biology
Adaptation is vital for species' survival. Every living organism must adapt to its environment and find its Ecological Niche in order to survive. Adaptations allow organisms to survive in specific, sometimes even harsh, climates. They allow organisms to avoid predation through the development of camouflage or aposematism.
Aposematism is when an animal has features that "advertise" to predators that it would be unwise to prey upon them.
These features are usually bright, vibrant colours and the unpleasant effects may range from fatal toxicity and venom to an unpleasant taste. Poison dart frogs (Dendrobatidae family), for example, have evolved vibrant colourations warning potential predators of their toxicity!
Adaptations can also give predators advantages, such as increased size, speed, and strength, as well as the development of specialized jaws or venom glands.
For example, they are four venomous snake families- atractaspidids, colubrids, elapids, and viperids. Snake species in these families have all developed venom glands in order to immobilize and consume prey species, as well as for protection or defence from potential threats, such as predators or humans!
Another example would be the Indian gharial, which evolved a slender, sharp-toothed jaw in order to specialize in fish predation, rather than the more generalized diet of many other crocodilian species that have bulkier snouts.
Types of adaptations
Adaptive traits can involve an organism's behaviour, physiology, or structure, but they must be heritable. There can also be co-adaptations. We will discuss these in more detail below.
- Behavioural adaptations are actions that are hardwired into an organism from birth, such as hibernation and migration.
- Physiological adaptations are those that involve internal physiological processes, such as thermoregulation, venom production, saltwater tolerance and much more.
- Structural adaptations are usually the most visually apparent of adaptations and involve the evolution of structural modifications that change an organism's appearance in some way.
- Co-adaptation happens when a symbiotic evolutionary relationship for adaptation occurs between two or more species. For example, hummingbirds and many flower species have evolved adaptations that are mutually beneficial.
Examples of adaptations in biology
Let's see some examples for each type of adaptation we described above.
Behavioural adaptation: hibernation
Woodchucks (Marmota monax), also known as groundhogs, are a marmot species native to North America. While they are active during the summer months, they enter a prolonged period of hibernation from late fall to early spring. During this time, their internal temperature will decrease from around 37°C to 4°C!
Furthermore, their heartbeat will plummet to a mere four beats per minute! This is an example of a behavioural adaptation that allows woodchucks to survive harsh winters when little of the fruit and vegetation they consume is available.
Behavioural adaptation: migration
The blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) (Fig. 2) is a species of antelope native to Sub-Saharan Africa. Yes, despite their bovine-like appearance, wildebeest are actually antelopes.
Every year, blue wildebeest take part in the largest herd migration on Earth, when more than a million of them leave the Ngorongoro Conservation Area of Tanzania to travel across the Serengeti to the Masai Mara of Kenya, quite literally in search of greener pastures, due to seasonal rainfall patterns. The migration is so large that it can actually be seen from outer space!
Along the way, the wildebeest face predation from many large predators, particularly African lions (Panthera leo) and Nile crocodiles (C. niloticus).
Figure 2: Every year, over one million blue wildebeest take part in the largest herd migration on Earth. Source: Wiki Commons, Public Domain
Physiological adaptation: saltwater tolerance
The saltwater crocodile (C. porosus) is the world's largest reptile and, despite its common name, is a freshwater species (Fig. 3). True marine crocodiles went extinct millions of years ago.
It gets its common name from the fact that individuals from this species can spend extended periods at sea and commonly utilize it as a means of transport between river systems and islands. This sea-faring ability has allowed the species to colonize numerous islands in two continents, with a distribution ranging from eastern India through Southeast Asia and the Indo-Malay Archipelago to the easternmost Santa Cruz group of the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu!
In addition, individual crocodiles have been found well over 1000 miles from the nearest resident Populations on islands in the South Pacific, such as Pohnpei and Fiji.
Figure 3: A saltwater crocodile (right) and an Australian freshwater crocodile (C. johnstoni) (left) far upstream in the freshwater section of a river. Despite its common name, the saltwater crocodile is a freshwater species. Source: Brandon Sideleau, own work.
How is a freshwater species like the saltwater crocodile capable of surviving long periods at sea? By maintaining ionic Homeostasis through the use of specially adapted lingual salt excreting glands, which expel the unwanted chloride and sodium ions.
These salt-excreting glands are also present in some other crocodile species, most notably the American crocodile (C. acutus), which has a very similar Ecology to the saltwater crocodile, but is absent in alligators.
Structural adaptation: tusks
An interesting but less known example of an animal with a structural adaptation is the babirusa.
Babirusas (Fig. 4) are members of the Babyrousa genus in the Suidae family (which includes all pigs and other swine) and are native to the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, as well as some smaller neighbouring islands. Babirusas are visually striking due to the presence of large curved tusks on males. These tusks are large canines that grow upward from the top jaw and actually penetrate the skin of the upper snout and curve around toward the eyes!
Of all extant mammal species, only the babirusa has canines that grow vertically. Since the only natural predators that babirusas face are crocodiles (for which the tusks would provide no defence), it has been suggested that the tusks evolved not as a defence from predators but rather to protect the face and neck during competitive battles with other males.
Figure 4: An artist's rendering of a babirusa. Note the curved tusks penetrating the upper snout. Source: Wiki Commons, Public Domain
Co-adaptation: flower pollination by hummingbirds
The trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans) of North America is often referred to as the "hummingbird vine" due to how attractive it is to hummingbirds. These trumpet creepers have actually evolved traits, including red colouration, that attract hummingbirds, particularly the ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris) (Fig. 5). Why? Because hummingbirds pollinate the flowers.
The hummingbirds also developed adaptations of their own to aid in the procuring of the flower's nectar in the form of changes to beak size and shape.
Figure 5: The ruby-throated hummingbird (left) and the trumpet creeper (right) have developed mutually beneficial adaptations. This is known as co-adaptation. Source: Wiki Commons, Public Domain
Now, I hope that you feel more confident in your understanding of adaptation!
What is Adaptation? - Key takeaways
- Adaptation in biology is a heritable process that involves adaptive traits being passed from one generation to the next.
- Adaptation does NOT include an organism learning new behaviors unless these new behaviors are the result of a heritable feature.
- Phenotypic features, or traits, that result in a species' evolution are the adaptations we are concerned with in biology.
- There are four types of adaptation: behavioral, physiological, structural, and co-adaptation.
- Along with speciation, adaptation allows for the massive diversity of species we have on Earth.
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