Learning

Sensitization

In contrast to habituation, sensitization refers to the increased response rate following a repeated stimulus. This can be identified in situations when a learner becomes aware of a stimulus and develops a stronger response as time goes on. One important hallmark of sensitization is that the increased response can occur to any given stimulus with surprising or unexpected quality.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning, also known as Pavlovian conditioning, is a type of learning through the association made between two types of stimulus that develops a learned response. This groundbreaking discovery was made by a Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov in 1902 when he conducted his extremely famous experiment known commonly as Pavlov’s dog.

This method first occurs when an unconditioned stimulus produces an initial (unconditioned) response and then is paired with another neutral stimulus and repeated. The learner then makes an association between the two stimuli creating a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response.

This diagram of Pavlov’s dog demonstrates classical conditioning:

Fg. 2 Classical conditioning in Pavlov's dogs, commons.wikimedia.org

In this example, the dog has learned to associate the ringing of the bell with food and develops a conditioned response (salivating) at the introduction of the conditioned stimulus (bell ringing), demonstrating classical conditioning.

Operant Conditioning

This specific method of learning is another significant discovery in the history of psychology and was made famous by an American psychologist B.F. Skinner, in his 1948 studies on operant conditioning. This type of learning displays unique characteristics that differ from the previously mentioned forms. In operant conditioning, the outcome is completely determined by the response. More specifically, the response to a behavior determines the likelihood for the behavior to be repeated (Mcleod 2018).

Two aspects pertaining to this method of learning are reinforcement and punishment.

1. Positive/negative reinforcement

   • A pleasant stimulus is rewarded after good behavior, so the behavior increases.

   • An unpleasant stimulus is removed to increase good behavior.

2. Positive/negative Punishment

   • Punishment is administered following bad behavior to decrease it.

   • Punishment is removed to increase good behavior.

An important note in operant conditioning is that we tend to repeat the behaviors that produce a rewarding or encouraging response. At the same time, behaviors that result in punishment or a negative response are less likely to be repeated (Thorndike 1927). This is known as Thorndike’s law of effect within operant conditioning.

Social Learning Theory

By combining ideas from both operant and classical conditioning, then including sentiments of observation and cognition, psychologist Albert Bandura coined the concept of social learning theory (1977). This theory derives from the idea that learning takes place using imitation and observation of others’ behavior while emphasizing the ideas of positive and negative reinforcement.

Bandura’s notorious Bobo Doll Experiment in 1961 is a perfect example of the social learning theory.

Fg. 3 Images of Bandura's Bobo doll experiment, Wikimedia.org

In this experiment, children were shown behaviors of a model interacting with an inflatable doll in either an aggressive or non-aggressive manner. Then, they got a chance to play with the doll while researchers observed their behavior. The results of the study showed that most children who witnessed the aggressive interaction model engaged in more aggressive behavior in their interactions. Children who saw the non-aggressive model showed less physical aggression toward the doll (Mcleod, 2014).

This is an exemplary demonstration of the social cognitive theory as the learners imitate behaviors they observed from a model in a similar social setting. This type of imitative behavior can be seen every day within communities of youth and adolescents. For example, think of a time when you may have learned to behave a certain way after watching a friend's actions. This is a prominent and almost innate method of learning that contributes to our society as we know it.