The year is 1660. The Puritans are in power. The theatres are closed. Festivals are banned. Christmas is cancelled. But wait. What's that? Is it a bird? Is it a plane? No, it's King Charles II, and he's come to reclaim the throne after his long exile in Europe. Rejoice! It's time for the Restoration of the monarchy! The theatres have returned. Christmas dinner is back on!
Have no idea what we're talking about? Don't worry; the Restoration is one of the most vibrant, exciting eras of literature to learn about. Let's start by looking at a basic summary of the Restoration period. We'll also look at the English literature of the period, including some famous female dramatists from the era. We'll even end with some fun facts about the Restoration period for good measure.
The Restoration summary
What do we mean when we talk about the 'Restoration'? Let's start with a basic definition:
The 'Restoration' refers to the Restoration of the Stuart monarchy in England in 1660. It also marked the return of the theatre after an 18-year ban.
Let's look in a little more detail at the history of this exciting period.
The Restoration period
Before we talk about the Restoration period, let's go back a few years to find out what needed to be 'restored' in the first place.
The turbulent reign of Charles I
Our story begins with Charles I (1600-1649), who became monarch of England in 1625. Since the start of his reign, Charles had one fundamental disagreement with Parliament: Charles thought he should be able to make any decisions he liked. Parliament believed they should have their say in the workings of the country.
This argument continued for many years, eventually resulting in a lengthy civil war fought between those on the side of the Parliament and those on the side of the monarchy. This war raged on for nearly a decade. Eventually, King Charles I was tried for treason and executed, and his son, Charles II, was exiled.
Charles I is the only English Monarch ever to be publicly executed.
The rise of Oliver Cromwell
During this Civil War, one politician, Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), showed his prowess as a military leader. Cromwell's dislike for Charles was personal as well as political. This is because Charles had married a Roman Catholic, and Oliver Cromwell was a Puritan.
The Puritans were a protestant religious group that believed the Church of England had too many similarities with the Roman Catholic church. They sought to 'purify' the Church, returning to a strict moral code and using teachings only found in the Bible.
When Charles I was executed, Cromwell established the 'Commonwealth of England', ended the monarchy, and became the leader of the country. The new leader began by integrating his Puritan beliefs and removing any religious ceremonies he saw fit. He also reinforced a theatre ban that Parliament had first put in place years earlier during the Civil War. This law ordered the closure of all London theatres and made it illegal to stage plays. Parliament claimed the ban was due to the light-heartedness of drama, stating that it was incompatible with the social and religious climate of the time. Understandably, these changes quickly made Cromwell's regime unpopular with the public.
Fig 1. During his time as leader, Oliver Cromwell (pictured above) also banned sports, swearing, festivals, working on Sundays, Christmas and make-up. We're no experts on running a country, but outlawing fun may have harmed public support for Cromwell.
The return of the King
When Oliver Cromwell died peacefully in his bed in 1658, the regime he had created seemed bound to fall. Cromwell's son, Richard, was not up to the task of leadership and proved even more unpopular with the public than his Father. In turn, Royalists began to plot the return from exile and ascent to the throne of Charles II.
On 25 May 1660, Charles II arrived back in England, and the monarchy was Restored.
In retaliation for his Father's execution, Charles II had Oliver Cromwell's body dug up and 'executed', even though he was already long dead. His head was then displayed on a spike above Westminster Hall. Charles II knew how to hold a grudge!
Restoring what was lost
The Restoration was more than just the return of the monarchy. It also signified the return of the theatres after an 18-year ban. Two new theatres were introduced to London: the Duke's Company and the King's Company. Festivals made a comeback; citizens could celebrate Christmas again. There was an atmosphere of liberty and opportunity in the air!
It didn't take long for Charles II's honeymoon as King to end. People questioned his extravagant tastes, and there was concern that he was allying himself too closely with the Catholics in France. The period was also defined by the 1665 Great plague, which killed up to 7000 people per week, and the Great Fire of London, which destroyed over 13000 houses and 87 churches only one year later.
Fig 2. Charles II was a man of many fashions. In this c.1661 painting, the King's outfit is clearly influenced by his time spent exiled in France. However, by 1666 Charles had banned French fashion from his courts, instead popularising a new 'English' royal outfit. Today, we know that outfit as the 'three-piece suit'.
The Restoration period in English literature
The motto of English literature during the Restoration period was: the restraints are off. Writers were free to experiment with content, structure and form. Much of the work from this period had a political focus; some writers welcomed Charles II with open arms, while others lamented his return. Let's look more closely at two famous works of Restoration literature.
'Astraea Redux: A Poem on the Happy Restoration and Return of His Sacred Majesty Charles the Second' (1660)
If you've ever asked for the writer's message within a poem to be less ambiguous, this is the poem for you. There's no questioning why John Dryden (1631-1700) made this one. Dryden welcomes King Charles II with open arms, praises his traits and recommends policies the King should adopt. This is one of many examples of John Dryden's politically-oriented poetry.
Poets during the Restoration era also helped to popularise the use of Heroic couplets (one line of iambic pentameter followed by one line of iambic tetrameter). Alongside Alexander Pope (1688-1744), Dryden is typically credited as one of the poets that perfected the style.
Iambic pentameter occurs when a line of verse contains five metrical feet, each of which contains one unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable.
Iambic tetrameter occurs when a line of verse contains four metrical feet, each of which contains one unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable.
Paradise Lost (1667)
John Milton's (1608-1674) Paradise Lost has transcended all literary movements to become a timeless classic that is still studied today. For this reason, many people forget that it was actually published during the Restoration era.
Milton was a Puritan and supported the Parliament, meaning that he also publically endorsed the execution of Charles I. Unsurprisingly, this made Milton an unpopular figure with Charles II when he returned to the throne, so much so that Milton was under threat of arrest and execution in 1660. While he was eventually pardoned, this didn't give him a new-found appreciation for the monarchy.
Did you know? John Milton was blind when creating Paradise Lost, so he had to recite his verses to someone who could write for him.
Within Paradise Lost, Milton explores the downsides of placing faith in one being. Knowing that Milton was an antimonarchist, we can interpret that Milton is using the narrative of Paradise Lost to warn against giving one individual, like a King or a Queen, absolute power.
Paradise Lost is written entirely in Blank verse. This means it has a regular metrical structure (usually iambic pentameter) but contains no rhymes. Milton is famed as one of the leading poets who popularised this unique style of poetry.
Theatre
After the theatre ban was lifted in 1660, drama witnessed a tremendous resurgence. People saw it as a welcome release after years of Puritan rule, and Restoration theatre quickly became one of the most popular modes of entertainment.
One prominent genre that arose during this time was the Restoration comedy.
Restoration comedy was a style of drama based on wit, satire, bawdy humour and social commentary.
After years of censorship, playwrights began to push the boundaries of what could be shown on stage. Restoration comedies would frequently comment on marriage and class and include sexual content that would have been far too explicit for stage only years earlier. One of the most famous playwrights from this period was William Wycherley (1641-1716), best known for his lewd comedy The Country Wife (1675), which included sexual scenes and satirised the upper classes.
Satire involves the use of humour and irony to ridicule a person or particular subset of society. It is often used to comment on social or political issues.
The Restoration period was also the first time women were allowed to perform on stage. The licenses granted by Charles made it a requirement for female parts to be played by female performers. Before this, female characters were typically played by young boys.
This social and political upheaval also allowed female dramatists to begin writing plays as a full-time profession. Let's look at some of the pioneering female dramatists of the Restoration.
Female dramatists of the Restoration
Before the Restoration, the idea of a professional female playwright was unheard of; with the new-found sense of liberation in the air, anything felt possible! Let's look at two pioneering female dramatists from the Restoration period.
Aphra Behn
Behn (c.1640 - 1689) was the first female playwright to earn a living through her work, making her a pioneer for female dramatists. The changing nature of the theatres provided the perfect opportunity for a skilled playwright like Behn to rise to fame.
Behn's The Rover (1677) tells the story of a group of English gentlemen holidaying in Naples. This Restoration comedy tackles themes of marriage, gender roles, and love with clever wit and cynical humour. Other famous Restoration plays by Aphra Behn include The Dutch Lover (1673), The Emperor of the Moon (1687) and The Town Fop (1676).
Mary Pix
Mary Pix (1666-1709) emerged as a professional dramatist in 1696, creating several successful plays throughout her lifetime. Some of her most famous plays are The Different Widows (1703), The Double Distress (1701), and The Thirteenth Emperor of the Turks (1696). Pix was inspired by Behn and was the colleague of many other critical female playwrights like Catherine Trotter (1679-1749) and Delariviere Manley (1663-1724).
Facts about the Restoration period
Here are five fun facts about the Restoration period:
- Literature from the Restoration period is often referred to as 'neoclassical' because the work often imitates the traditional styles of the Greeks and Romans.
- It was during the Restoration period that Samuel Pepys (1633-1703) kept his infamous diary, which is now one of the most important surviving sources of the Restoration period.
- The first English 'fine dining' restaurant, featuring an assortment of French delicacies, opened during the Restoration period.
- English soldier Geoge Monck (1608-1670) was the first to contact Prince Charles and propose his return from exile to take the English throne.
- There was little to no protection from the plague. It killed over 200,000 people in total.
The Restoration (1660-1700) - Key takeaways
- The Restoration refers to the Restoration of the Stuart monarchy in England in 1660.
- It also marked the return of the theatre, which had been outlawed during Puritan rule years earlier.
- Some of the most famous playwrights from The Restoration are William Wycherley (1641-1716), Aphra Behn (c.1640 - 1689) and Mary Pix (1666-1709).
- Milton's famous poem Paradise Lost was created during the Restoration period and contained many anti-monarchist sentiments directed towards Charles II.
- Literature from the Restoration period is often referred to as 'neoclassical' because the work often imitates the traditional styles of the Greeks and Romans.
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