Modern World History

How did modern nations and countries develop into their present forms? After the decline of Classical civilization (500 BCE to 500 CE), new nations and empires emerged. Which countries thrived and which civilizations collapsed under the changing circumstances of increased cultural interaction, globalization, industrialization, revolution, and global conflict?

Modern World History Timeline and Structure

The study of Modern World History is divided into a timeline of interconnected themes instead of a chronological history. These themes influence all societies and their developments during that period:

Modern World History Focus

The study of “Modern” World History begins around 1200 CE. Why the year 1200? Between 600 CE and 1200 CE, most of the Classical Civilizations of Greece, Rome, Persia, Qin, Han, and Byzantine collapsed or were drastically declining in influence and power. Much of the world was in economic and political recovery from the vacuum left by these powerful nations. During this time, new states emerged, promoting a greater sense of interconnectedness through trade and exchanging ideas.

Studying modern world history involves focusing on:

• how the themes above impacted and changed civilizations around the world
• transformative events
• how societies adapted or collapsed

Let's now take a brief look at modern world history events according to period and theme.

The Post-Classical Period & Networks of Exchange 1200-1450

During the postclassical era in Europe, Asia, and Africa, the cultures that survived the collapse, as well as new emerging nations, experienced political, social, cultural, and economic change that lay the foundation for their experience throughout history and even today.

Religion in World History

Key religious developments occurred in the postclassical era:

• Islam emerged as a world religion and quickly became the religious and cultural foundation for one of the largest empires.
• Buddhism expanded out of the sub-continent of Asia, influencing China, Korea, and most of South East Asia.
• Christianity split between Roman Catholicism in the west and Orthodox Christianity in the east.

These religions offered a cultural identity for many in their regions during political turmoil and confusion. Identities and cultures would be solidified through religious nation-states and lay the foundation for future religious and cultural conflict.

Imperial China

Postclassical China is characterized by the emergence of imperial dynasties and systematic attempts at unifying much of western Asia. Beginning with the collapse of the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) and the establishment of the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE), postclassical China saw evolutions in agriculture, economics, politics, and technology.

Fig. 1 A map showing the region controlled by the Song Dynasty

Medieval East Asia and the Spread of Dar al Islam

Medieval East Asia is most noted for the rapid expansion of Islamic influence and the establishment of Dar al Islam.

Like Christianity, Islam is expansionist by divine command. Both Muhammad and the Qur'an- the holy book of Islam- charge their followers with converting non-believers, and indeed, Muhammad's followers began to expand their influence and control over East Asia through trade, commerce, and military conquest.

Fig. 2 Central Illumination of the Royal Terengganu Quran

Throughout the postclassical era in East Asia, the principal authority over the dar al-Islam was the Abbasid Dynasty. During this time, the region saw vast urban growth, the spread of food and crops, population growth, and most importantly: control over trade and commerce. The Abbasid Caliphate strengthened elaborate trade networks between Asia and Europe and reaped the economic benefits.

Post-Classical South Asia

As cultural, political, and economic developments occurred in Imperial China, this had a drastic influence on the societies of South Asia.

Fig. 3 1907 map of the Chinese Empire

Post-Classical Americas

Between 700 and 1450, North America saw the rise and fall of the Mississippian culture. Little is known about the Indigenous Peoples of the Mississippi River Valley in the eastern United States, but we do know that they had a rigid social structure:

• an upper class of priests and elite
• a middle class of farmers and merchants
• a lower class of slaves and prisoners of war

Between 1450 and 1600, many of these societies moved or collapsed.

Two cultures emerged in the southwestern United States: the Chaco and the Mesa Verde, both known for their innovative adaptations to the region's unique environment. By the 1200s, these groups began to move and decline, most likely due to changes in the climate.

In South America, three large and influential empires emerged: the Maya, Aztecs, and the Inca. The map and table below compare these three civilizations:

Fig. 4 Map showing the territories of the Aztec (blue), Inca (green), and the Mayan (red) Empires

Post-Classical Africa

Africa also saw the growth of powerful kingdoms during the post-classical era.

Fig. 5 1690 Coronelli Map of Ethiopia

Medieval Europe

Medieval Europe is defined by the struggle for political order after the collapse of the Roman Empire in 476 CE. This conflict is divided between two competing religious cultures - Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodox Christianity- and the competing successor states to the Roman empire. With conflicting cultures, religions, and control, let’s compare the western and eastern regions of Medieval Europe.

Fig. 6 A map of post-classical Europe before the collapse of the Carolingian Empire

The Rise and Fall of Empire & Colonization 1450-1750

Across the world, by the mid-1400s, people had created organized societies, distinctive cultures, and unique traditions. Agriculture dominated the economy in most of the world's civilizations, with the most powerful having the ability to manufacture textiles, spices, and other commodities.

These same civilizations created intricate trade networks that supported commerce, travel, and exchange.

• Oceanic routes dominated the Indian Ocean connecting East Asia and Africa to the markets of the sub-continent and South Asia.
• The Silk Roads connected those same markets to that of the Mediterranean and Europe.

As these interconnections developed, so did the demand for goods and resources, and thus, the need for civilizations to expand, leading to an era of Empire and Colonization.

Land-Based Empires

Empires existed before the 1450s. However, between 1450 and 1750, the largest and most influential land empires reached their peak. Fueled by systems of trade and commerce to support large populations and control vast territories, these Empires shaped the political, cultural, and economic futures of the multiethnic states they held.

These empires included the Songhai of Africa, the Safavids in Persia, the Mughals in India, the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean, and the Ming and Qing Dynasties in China.

Fig. 7 Ottoman Empire

Maritime Empires

As well as land-based empires, the postclassical period also lay the foundations for maritime empires, which would eventually overtake the land empires in wealth and influence.

With the voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492, the first Atlantic trade networks were established. The Age of Exploration began.

Over this period, large ocean-based empires evolved, with European nations indirectly controlling foreign regions through colonization.

Transatlantic Slave Trade

African trade also influenced European exploration:

• Since the 12th century, Europeans had purchased west African gold, ivory, and slaves.
• Gold was an essential commodity because it was Europe’s primary form of payment for Asian goods.
• Ocean trade routes that offered more direct access to African markets would benefit European merchants.

As the Age of Exploration continued to benefit European nations and North and South America were rediscovered, the need for labor in gold and silver mines and sugar and rice plantations increased the demand for enslaved labor. Portuguese trading posts on the west African coast became the epicenter of the Atlantic slave trade.

Fig. 8 Joseph Cross The Impolicy of Slavery

The Decline of Empires

In the three hundred years this theme covers, history saw the peak of Land-based empires, the creation, expansion, and domination of maritime empires, and the decline of both systems.

• 1500s to 1600s: Many land-based empires began to see their power wain as maritime empires begin to reap the economic benefits of oceanic trade routes.
• 1750s: Most land-based Empires had collapsed or become irrelevant. Maritime empires also began to struggle to control governments and citizens thousands of miles away, and some colonies became influenced by Enlightenment ideas of self-governance and natural rights.

Fig. 9 The Decline of the Carthaginian Empire Art

Revolutions & The Industrial Age 1750-1900

Beginning in the late 1600s through to the 1750s, empires and international trade expanded, leading to more interactions between societies. Philosophers began to question tradition, systems of government, and individualism over community values; this shift in thinking is known as the Enlightenment.

Enlightenment thinkers promoted four basic principles:

1. a natural order to the world
2. the power of human reason
3. the natural rights of individuals, such as self-government
4. the progressive improvement of society

These ideas challenged the roles of church leaders and the centralized power of the monarchy, sowing the seeds of revolution around the world.

Changes also happened in technology. The Industrial Revolution caused the creation of commodities to skyrocket, setting the stage for drastic changes in the worldwide economy, international relations, and politics.

Fig. 10 Advances in Metallurgy

The Industrial Revolution

Industrialization had its roots in agricultural improvements, preindustrial societies and economics, and the growth of technology.

• The Agricultural Revolution: The Industrial Revolution first has its roots in the agricultural improvements of the early 1700s. Crop rotation and the invention of the seed drill led to increased productivity and, thus, more revenue and more food for a growing population.

• Preindustrial Societies: As agricultural products became more available, it put a strain on the preindustrial economy and society creating a need for the development of machinery to produce more textiles more efficiently.

• Growth of Technology: By the mid-1700s, technology began to match agricultural output. The invention of the spinning jenny, water frame, interchangeable parts, the cotton gin, and the organization of factories created an environment for rapid industrial growth.

The Industrial Revolution began in earnest in Great Britain but soon spread worldwide.

Migration and Global Interconnectedness

The Industrial Revolution brought about significant economic, political, and social changes:

• It made goods cheaper and more accessible to more people.
• The expanding need for labor in urban areas created a migration from rural to urban cities and migrations from agricultural countries to industrialized nations.
• Global interconnectedness of trade and commerce and inequalities grew due to industrialization.
• Nations that adapted to mechanization early needed more raw materials to feed production and more labor to fill the fields and factories.
• Industrialized nations began to exploit overseas natural resources and started the second wave of imperialism and colonization.

Global Conflict 1900-1950

The twentieth century was a time of significant social and political change, which resulted in tension and division within and between nations. People and states challenged the existing political and social orders. At the same time, new technologies and advancements both improved our understanding of the universe and enabled two world wars to wreak havoc across the globe.

Global Power Shifts

World War I

These shifting global powers created escalating tensions that erupted into conflict.

• European empires in Africa and Asia competed for raw materials.
• An intricate series of alliances committed European nations to come to the defense of others.
• An increase in nationalism and militarism led to an arms race between Germany, France, Britain, and Russia.

World War II

Not long after the aftermath of World War I, the world found itself in an economic crisis resulting in the Great Depression of the 1930s and on a path that would lead to the outbreak of World War II.

The Global Cold War 1945-1990

After WWII ended, a global ideological conflict emerged between the two remaining world powers, the capitalist United States and the communist Soviet Union - this is known as the Cold War.

The cost of war and the aftermath of World War II motivated the United States and the Soviet Union to avoid direct military conflict. The Cold War between the superpowers played out in propaganda, covert operations, and a military arms race.

Fig. 13 Soviet Global power projection 1981

The deadliest result of the Cold War occurred outside the lands of the two superpowers. Instead, each nation armed opposing sides in the capitalist versus communist conflicts worldwide, transforming minor civil conflicts into more significant events.

The effects of the Cold War

• Allied occupation of Germany: After World War II, the Allies divided Germany under western and Soviet control resulting in the Berlin Blockade, the economic disparity between the two sides of Germany, and the construction and fall of the Berlin Wall.

• Shifting Alliances: The Cold War brought about the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) as a means for western nations to defend themselves against the Soviets. The Warsaw Pact was the Soviet response to NATO, creating the “communist bloc.”

• Proxy Wars: As mentioned above, the U.S. and Russia did not directly engage in military action but did take part in military actions in other nations to combat the spread of capitalism or communism. These conflicts include:

  • The Korean War

  • The Vietnam War

  • The Cuban Crisis

  • The Contra War

  • The Angola War

• The Anti-Nuclear Movement: the nuclear arms race sparked social and political action to stop the spread, production, and influence of nuclear weapons in the global arms race.

Decolonization and Globalization 1945- Present

In the twentieth century, nationalist groups and leaders challenged colonial rule through land reform, political negotiation, and armed conflict. Empires became politically unacceptable, and European powers struggled to hold onto their colonies. Notions of freedom fostered by World War II rhetoric and Cold War propaganda helped speed up decolonization.

Significant Decolonization Movements:

• India and Pakistan from Great Britain (1946)

• Ghana from Great Britain (1957)

• Algeria from France (1962)

• Vietnam from France in 1954

• Egypt from Britain (1952)

• Nigeria from Britain (1960)

• The creation of Israel in 1947

Fig. 14 Decolonization World in 1945