Anarchism

While most ideologies seek to tell us how authority and rule should be structured in society, anarchism is unique in that it rejects the presence of both authority and rule.

Fig. 2 Political Spectrum

Beliefs of anarchism

While a rejection of authority is the most well-known belief of anarchism, there are many more important beliefs you need to know to truly understand the ideology. The most important beliefs of anarchism are anti-statism, anti-clericalism, liberty, and economic freedom.

Anti-statism

The most important and famous of these beliefs is anti-statism, which is a rejection of all forms of hierarchy in favour of the organisation of society based on cooperation and voluntary participation. The state, or government, is an example of a hierarchical system in which those who govern are at the top and exert their power and influence over those governed.

Anarchists generally believe that, to some extent, humans are a product of their environment. Therefore, the state's overarching presence produces an environment in which individual actions are influenced and coerced, even in a liberal democracy. Anarchists who subscribe to the idea that humans are naturally altruistic argue that state presence interferes with humans' ability to behave altruistically.

Generally, anarchists don't believe in any authority that is 'commanding', 'controlling', and 'corrupting' not just the states but also oppressive structures like racism and sexism.

Anti-clericalism

It is not just the state that is commanding and controlling; religion can also have those effects. This was the case, particularly during the emergence of anarchist philosophy in Europe. As the state played a central role in policing people's lives, many anarchists rebelled against this norm.

Anarchists are often anti-clericalists as they view religion as a coercive force because religion often uses concepts of hell and heaven to force people into obedience. Religion also upholds class inequality as it keeps the poor and working class disillusioned as they maintain the belief that despite their struggles on earth, they can receive grandeur in heaven if they follow the commands of a God.

Liberty

Anarchism seeks to promote true and complete liberty. However, liberty is incompatible with any form of powerful authority, so the anarchist stance on liberty reinforces its rejection of the state.

To have true liberty, individuals must have autonomy. Within anarchism, there are differing views on what liberty looks like; this manifests in the individualist and collectivist anarchism traditions that we will discuss soon.

Economic Freedom

Another of the main beliefs of anarchism is economic freedom, as it enables individuals to organise their economic affairs autonomously. Anarchists oppose all systems that do not allow for complete economic freedom, for example, capitalism and many socialist economic systems. Systems that do not allow for economic freedom are viewed as exploitative and oppressive due to the power dynamics they perpetuate and sustain.

History of anarchism

The exact timeline of the history of anarchism is hotly debated due to different interpretations of what anarchism has looked like in practice. However, generally, William Godwin, in his 1793 text an Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, is believed to have provided the first classical statement of anarchist principles in history, (although he never personally referred to himself as an anarchist).

Anarchist ideology has developed throughout history. Like many other prominent political ideologies, we find the foundations of modern anarchism from within the Enlightenment period (though many pre-historic anarchist societies existed). This period saw a growing opposition to absolute authority and rule, particularly in relation to the rule of monarchs.

In the late 19th century and the early 20th century, we saw the development of anarchism through the emergence of both the Spanish Civil War and the Russian civil war. These periods saw the rise of distinct anarchist branches, such as anarcho-syndicalism and anarcho-communism. At this point in history (around the Spanish Civil War), anarchism was at its height. Despite this popularity of anarchism, authoritarian rule and political repression gradually undermined anarchism in Europe. The growing prestige of communism within revolutionary movements has also historically undermined anarchism's influence and development.

Types of anarchism

Fig. 3 Diagram showing the different branches of anarchism, both collectivist and individualist.

Just like within many of the other political ideologies we are familiar with, anarchists do not all share the same beliefs. This has led to distinct types of anarchism emerging, the most significant distinction is between Individualist Anarchism and Collectivist Anarchism.

Individualist Anarchism

The two main differences between individualist and collectivist anarchism are that individualist anarchists believe in individualism and egoism.

They believe in individualism because they fear that collectivism will lead to a loss of freedom. This leads to subtypes of individualism anarchism like anarcho-capitalism, which focuses on economic freedom and radical capitalism. A more extreme form of individualism in anarchism is Egoism, which argues that humans only care about themselves.

Individualist anarchism also believes in a gradual approach to anarchism, such as organisations like workers' cooperatives slowly taking over the state rather than revolutionary means of overthrowing the state.

Collectivist anarchism

Collectivist anarchism emphasises common ownership and relies on the belief that human nature is generally altruistic and cooperative, so we cannot solve social issues as individuals. Collective anarchists, therefore, oppose capitalism since private property accumulation is seen as re-creating the coercive hierarchies of the state; this can be seen both in mutualism and anarcho-communism.

Unlike individualist anarchists, collectivist anarchism thinks revolution is necessary to eliminate hierarchical structures. There are also a few different types of collectivist anarchism, including anarcho-communism, mutualism, and anarcho-syndicalism. This is why you might hear about it being talked about as Revolutionary Anarchism.

Other Types of anarchism

Aside from the anarchist traditions that fall under the category of individualist or collectivist, there are still many other types of anarchism, such as utopian anarchism and anarcho-pacifism.

Utopian anarchism envisages a perfect society devoid of rule, which is peaceful and harmonious. Similarly, anarcho-pacifism has an approach to anarchism that is concerned with non-violent forms of resistance to bring about social changes and revolution in line with the anarchist ideology.

Fig. 4 Sign leading to Utopia

Famous Anarchists

There have been many key contributors to anarchism; let's take a look at some famous anarchists below!

Max Stirner and Egoism (1806-1856)

Stirner was a famous German philosopher who wrote 'The Ego and Its Own' in 1844. Stirner's works argued for radical individualism and forwarded notions of egoism. Egoism is concerned with self-interest as the foundation of morality. Stirner argued that all humans were egoists and that everything we do is for our benefit.

Fig. 5 Cartoon drawing of Max Stirner

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Mutualism (1809-1865)

Proudhon wrote 'What is property?' in 1840, to which his answer was 'property is theft'. Proudhon believed that property resulting from labour was legitimate, but private property ownership of unused lands and lands that made their profit through rent or interest was illegitimate.

Proudhon supported mutualism whereby instead of laws, individuals made contracts with one another and upheld these contracts leading to mutual respect and reciprocity between individuals.

Mikhail Bakunin and Propaganda By The Deed (1814-1876)

Bakunin viewed justice as synonymous with equality and believed that the freedom of each person would only be achieved if everyone had equality. Bakunin famously supported collectivist anarchist ideals and sought to abolish private property in favour of collectivisation. Bakunin argues that rather than state communism, workers themselves should own the means of production. Authority should be a matter of choice; therefore, the state is an illegitimate form of authority.

Fig. 6, Photo of Mikhail Bakunin

Peter Kropotkin and Mutual Aid (1842-1921)

Kropotkin was a communist anarchist; his work Mutual Aid was published in 1902. Kropotkin challenged those that believed Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory of survival of the fittest justified racial and class hierarchy.

Kropotkin also wrote The Conquest of Bread, which outlined his views on what an anarcho-communist society would look like and influenced anarchists in Catalonia during the Spanish Civil War. Kropotkin had a utopian view of society and supported the idea that anarchy is order.

Emma Goldman (1869-1940)

Emma Goldman believed the state was a "cold monster" as it used ideas of patriotism to coerce and manipulate its population into embarking on military ventures in other nations for territorial expansion. The state itself is the creator of conflict and war.

Goldman is often referred to as an anarchist feminist and Goldman herself participated in the Spanish Civil War to advance anarchism in Spain.